For most of history, industrial growth was slow and uneven, led by private business owners. The 20th century changed that: governments took charge, directing investment, building factories, and training workers. This chapter looks at three big experiments in state-led industrialization—the Soviet Union’s command economy, Japan’s post-war miracle, and China’s shift from central planning to market reforms. We’ll see what they teach us about how countries can (and sometimes cannot) push economic development.